Victimisation of Women in Public Places : Sexual Harassment in Pakistan, Ghana, and Finland
Anwar, Farida (2022-06-13)
Åbo Akademi - Åbo Akademi University
13.06.2022
Julkaisu on tekijänoikeussäännösten alainen. Teosta voi lukea ja tulostaa henkilökohtaista käyttöä varten. Käyttö kaupallisiin tarkoituksiin on kielletty.
Julkaisun pysyvä osoite on
https://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-12-4199-4
https://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-12-4199-4
Tiivistelmä
The overall aim of the thesis was to investigate the prevalence rate of victimisation of women from sexual harassment in public places in countries with different cultural norms: Pakistan, Ghana, and Finland. The study investigated victimisation of women from sexual harassment in public places from various perspectives including attributes associated with the victims (marital status, age, education), concomitants of sexual harassment (immediate distress, immediate defensive reactions, long-term negative consequences, sharing of the experience), and the association of sexual harassment with victimisation from other types of aggression. It was also investigated whether victimisation from other types of aggression and poor self-esteem could serve as risk factors for sexual harassment. The relationship between victimisation from sexual harassment and the development of PTSD and depressive symptoms was also studied. Furthermore, the moderating and mediating social factors involved in the process, more precisely sharing behaviour of the victims, the social support they receive on the disclosure of their experience, abuse-related shame, and fear of being harassed, were examined.
Study I: The study aimed at examining the frequency of sexual harassment and its psychological concomitants among female victims in Pakistan with different levels of education. A questionnaire was filled in by 543 female students in Pakistan, the mean age was 22.3 years (SD = 4.3), the age range was 16–47 years. Of the respondents, 481 were single and 55 married, 417 had a Bachelor’s degree or less, and 125 had Master’s degree or higher. The questionnaire included scales measuring (a) victimisation from physical, verbal, and nonverbal sexual harassment, (b) reactions to sexual harassment, including (i) immediate distress, (ii) immediate defensive reactions, (iii) long-term negative consequences, and (iv) sharing of the experience with someone. Two more scales were also included to measure (c) the identity of the perpetrator and (d) the location where the sexual harassment took place. Sexual harassment was found to be most common in marketplaces, and the perpetrator was typically a stranger. Nonverbal sexual harassment was the most frequent type. The most common single act of harassment was identified as being “stared at with dirty looks”followed by “stood close to you in a crowded place”. The most common reaction of the victims was to run away. Respondents highly victimised from physical, verbal, or nonverbal harassment scored higher than others on defensive reactions, immediate distress, and long-term negative concomitants. Age, marital status, and education level of the victims were not associated with the amount of victimisation from any type of sexual harassment, but respondents with a high education scored significantly higher on negative reactions to sexual harassment.
Study II: The aim of the study was to investigate to what degree victimisation from sexual harassment, and the level of emotional distress due to sexual harassment, are associated with four other types of victimisation, thus constituting revictimisation and/or multiple victimisation. A questionnaire was completed by 280 female university students and lecturers in Ghana. The mean age was 26.7 years (SD = 6.2). Of the respondents, 6% had high school education, 49.1% had tertiary education, 36.7% had a Bachelor’s degree, and 8.2% had a Master’s degree. The questionnaire included scales for measuring the frequency of victimisation from sexual harassment, emotional distress due to sexual harassment, retrospective measures of physical punishment during childhood, and victimisation from peer aggression at school. Victimisation from verbal and physical intimate partner aggression as an adult was also included. No correlation was found between the amount of sexual harassment and the age of the respondents. Unmarried women were harassed significantly more than married ones. The most common act of harassment was being “stared at with dirty looks” followed by “having one’s hand shaken or pinched in the palm”. The most common perpetrator was a friend or fellow student, and the most common place of harassment was found to be at university. Respondents with a higher level of education underwent higher emotional distress due to sexual harassment than others. Respondents who were more than average victimised from sexual harassment scored significantly higher on physical punishment during childhood, victimisation from peer aggression at school (thus constituting revictimisation), and victimisation from verbal and physical intimate partner aggression (multiple victimisation). When the frequency of sexual harassment was controlled for, emotional distress caused by sexual harassment correlated positively with victimisation from peer aggression at school, and victimisation from verbal intimate partner aggression.
Study III: The aim of the study was to investigate whether victimisation from prior and simultaneous aggression found as risk factors for victimisation from sexual harassment in Ghana (Study II) could be identified in Finland. A questionnaire was completed by 591 female university students in Finland. The mean age was 25.2 years (SD = 7.1).Nonverbal sexual harassment was found to be the most common type followed by physical harassment. The most common place of victimisation was in a nightclub or bar, and the most common perpetrator was a stranger. The most common single act of victimisation was “to be stared at with filthy looks” followed by “talked to in an unpleasant sexual way”. Victimisation from sexual harassment in public places was significantly predicted by physical punishment during childhood, victimisation from peer aggression at school, victimisation from verbal and physical intimate partner aggression, and low self-esteem. When frequency of sexual harassment was controlled for, emotional distress due to it was significantly correlated with victimisation from verbal intimate partner aggression, victimisation from peer aggression at school, and low self-esteem.
Study IV: The aim of the study was to examine the association between victimisation from sexual harassment and the development of PTSD and depressive symptoms among victims, and in addition, to examine potentially contributing mediating and moderating social factors involved in the process. A questionnaire was completed by 586 female university students in three cities in Pakistan. The mean age was 22.3 years (SD = 4.3). Of the respondents, 84.1% were single and 15.9% were married. 62.1% of the respondents had a Bachelor’s degree or less, and 37.9% had a Master’s degree or higher. The questionnaire included scales for measuring the frequency of sexual harassment, sharing behaviour of the victims of sexual harassment with a close one, the subsequent social support they received on disclosure of the experience, abuse-related shame, fear of being harassed, self-esteem, symptoms of PTSD, and depression. Abuse-related shame and fear of being harassed were found to serve as mediators between exposure to sexual harassment and PTSD and depression, respectively. Social support, but not simply sharing the experience with a close one, had a moderating effect. The indirect effect of abuse-related shame was weaker among women who received social support after being victimised. No association was found between victimisation from sexual harassment and the level of self-esteem of the victims.
Study I: The study aimed at examining the frequency of sexual harassment and its psychological concomitants among female victims in Pakistan with different levels of education. A questionnaire was filled in by 543 female students in Pakistan, the mean age was 22.3 years (SD = 4.3), the age range was 16–47 years. Of the respondents, 481 were single and 55 married, 417 had a Bachelor’s degree or less, and 125 had Master’s degree or higher. The questionnaire included scales measuring (a) victimisation from physical, verbal, and nonverbal sexual harassment, (b) reactions to sexual harassment, including (i) immediate distress, (ii) immediate defensive reactions, (iii) long-term negative consequences, and (iv) sharing of the experience with someone. Two more scales were also included to measure (c) the identity of the perpetrator and (d) the location where the sexual harassment took place. Sexual harassment was found to be most common in marketplaces, and the perpetrator was typically a stranger. Nonverbal sexual harassment was the most frequent type. The most common single act of harassment was identified as being “stared at with dirty looks”followed by “stood close to you in a crowded place”. The most common reaction of the victims was to run away. Respondents highly victimised from physical, verbal, or nonverbal harassment scored higher than others on defensive reactions, immediate distress, and long-term negative concomitants. Age, marital status, and education level of the victims were not associated with the amount of victimisation from any type of sexual harassment, but respondents with a high education scored significantly higher on negative reactions to sexual harassment.
Study II: The aim of the study was to investigate to what degree victimisation from sexual harassment, and the level of emotional distress due to sexual harassment, are associated with four other types of victimisation, thus constituting revictimisation and/or multiple victimisation. A questionnaire was completed by 280 female university students and lecturers in Ghana. The mean age was 26.7 years (SD = 6.2). Of the respondents, 6% had high school education, 49.1% had tertiary education, 36.7% had a Bachelor’s degree, and 8.2% had a Master’s degree. The questionnaire included scales for measuring the frequency of victimisation from sexual harassment, emotional distress due to sexual harassment, retrospective measures of physical punishment during childhood, and victimisation from peer aggression at school. Victimisation from verbal and physical intimate partner aggression as an adult was also included. No correlation was found between the amount of sexual harassment and the age of the respondents. Unmarried women were harassed significantly more than married ones. The most common act of harassment was being “stared at with dirty looks” followed by “having one’s hand shaken or pinched in the palm”. The most common perpetrator was a friend or fellow student, and the most common place of harassment was found to be at university. Respondents with a higher level of education underwent higher emotional distress due to sexual harassment than others. Respondents who were more than average victimised from sexual harassment scored significantly higher on physical punishment during childhood, victimisation from peer aggression at school (thus constituting revictimisation), and victimisation from verbal and physical intimate partner aggression (multiple victimisation). When the frequency of sexual harassment was controlled for, emotional distress caused by sexual harassment correlated positively with victimisation from peer aggression at school, and victimisation from verbal intimate partner aggression.
Study III: The aim of the study was to investigate whether victimisation from prior and simultaneous aggression found as risk factors for victimisation from sexual harassment in Ghana (Study II) could be identified in Finland. A questionnaire was completed by 591 female university students in Finland. The mean age was 25.2 years (SD = 7.1).Nonverbal sexual harassment was found to be the most common type followed by physical harassment. The most common place of victimisation was in a nightclub or bar, and the most common perpetrator was a stranger. The most common single act of victimisation was “to be stared at with filthy looks” followed by “talked to in an unpleasant sexual way”. Victimisation from sexual harassment in public places was significantly predicted by physical punishment during childhood, victimisation from peer aggression at school, victimisation from verbal and physical intimate partner aggression, and low self-esteem. When frequency of sexual harassment was controlled for, emotional distress due to it was significantly correlated with victimisation from verbal intimate partner aggression, victimisation from peer aggression at school, and low self-esteem.
Study IV: The aim of the study was to examine the association between victimisation from sexual harassment and the development of PTSD and depressive symptoms among victims, and in addition, to examine potentially contributing mediating and moderating social factors involved in the process. A questionnaire was completed by 586 female university students in three cities in Pakistan. The mean age was 22.3 years (SD = 4.3). Of the respondents, 84.1% were single and 15.9% were married. 62.1% of the respondents had a Bachelor’s degree or less, and 37.9% had a Master’s degree or higher. The questionnaire included scales for measuring the frequency of sexual harassment, sharing behaviour of the victims of sexual harassment with a close one, the subsequent social support they received on disclosure of the experience, abuse-related shame, fear of being harassed, self-esteem, symptoms of PTSD, and depression. Abuse-related shame and fear of being harassed were found to serve as mediators between exposure to sexual harassment and PTSD and depression, respectively. Social support, but not simply sharing the experience with a close one, had a moderating effect. The indirect effect of abuse-related shame was weaker among women who received social support after being victimised. No association was found between victimisation from sexual harassment and the level of self-esteem of the victims.
Kokoelmat
- 515 Psykologia [52]